How far we’ve come…

I think it’s clear how much I love forests of any type in every part of the world through my blog. Is this love genuine though?
 

Well… I know it is and I do not need to put a value to the ecosystem and its services in order to appreciate it and enjoy it in a sustainable way. Ecosystem valuation created the need to protect the environment for our own benefit putting aside or undervaluing ecosystems and processes that are not of much use to humans.
 

Nonetheless, the valuing of ecosystems is necessary in development hungry society where any actions taken need to be measured in a currency. The different bodies of NGOs, GOs interested in conservation and protection such as greenpeace, WWF and many others in addition to the nature enthusiast (such as myself) will continue to fight for the environment no matter the price tag.
 

Over the past few months I have come to the habit of blogging. This experience made me realize how fun and helpful blogs are for the development of thoughts and ideas as well as knowledge. I have to admit that I have enjoyed this module assessment and I will continue to post interesting ideas and any developments regarding the well-being of forests although the posting frequency may vary.
 

I hope you have been enjoying my blog as much as I have and I would also like to thank you for the feedback on my blogs.
 

Nature is to be enjoyed take every opportunity to explore forests and the world.

Conservation of Temperate and Boreal forest

Actions are taken in order to conserve Temperate and Boreal forests. Bodies and governments recognize the importance of these biomes as ecosystem services and for the conservation for future generations to experience.

The ForestryCommission manages the temperate forests in the UK whereby they manage the forests by replacing the harvested trees and promoting regeneration of some areas. The forests are protected from diseases and pests and restore degraded land. Species and habitats are protected as well as promoting awareness and sustainable recreational activities. In addition to this, the provide grants to encourage tree planting (Forestry Commission).

 

National Trust charity organisation in the UK, among others they protect temperate forests. Adding to this, the development of the UK National Ecosystem Assessment also raised awareness of the importance of forests and other ecosystems. This was done in synergy of governments, NGOs, academics and private institutions (UK NEA).

Logging is one of the primary threat to all forest biomes. Boreal forest trees have a slow regrowth rate and thus careful management is needed. Adding to this, vast areas of forest are flooded for the storing of water for hydroelectric power (Figure 1; marietta; Ontario Nature). Another threat is mining where forested area is cleared for mining practices (Ontario Nature). The major threat to this biome is the exploration for fuel resources. Across the boreal forest belt it is thought to be having large sources of petroleum products and high demand for these resources is pushing development for exploitation. This will have detrimental effects for the biome due to the slow regrowth and possible impacts of fuel spills (marietta).

Figure 1: Hydroelectric Project, Quebec (marietta)

To eliminate or reduce some of the impacts of threats as for the other forest biomes there have been developments by groups of people for the conservation and protection of Boreal forests. The PEW Charitable Trust is campaigning for the international boreal conservation working with other bodies such as national and international organisations. The ‘Canadian Boreal Forest Conservation Framework’ by the CanadianBoreal initiative (CBI) look to maintain the biome’s health, respect the First Nations right in addition to protecting nature and cultural values. Other organisations such as CPAWS create protected areas in Canada.

These only include some of the bodies and governments that fight for the protection and conservation of these areas.

Boreal Forest and its Ecosystem Services

The Boreal forest also known as Taiga is the largest biome in the world. It is characterised by the needle-leaved conifer evergreens and the long cold winters. They are located between 50-60°North just below the tundra biome (Figure 1) in a continuous belt along Eurasia and North America (Encyclopædia Britannica).



Figure 1: Map of Boreal Forests indicated by the dark green colour (marietta) 



There are long severe winters that in some cases the average temperature could be below zero for up to six months and most of precipitation comes in the form of snow (BluePlanet).  During the summer months, it is the growing season which usually lasts less than 3 months but occurs in an explosion of plant growth as the days are incredibly long and there is plenty of water available due to little evaporation occurring in the area (marietta).

The predominant species of conifers that you can find in the Boreal forest include pine, fir, larch and spruce. The can also be found some species from the deciduous genera such as poplar and birch.  The animals in this forest tend to be predators such as lynx and members of the weasel family in addition to some bigger animals such as the Siberian tiger. They feed on herbivores such as such as snowshoe rabbits, voles and Squirrels. Some of the characteristic animals that live here are the moose (Figure 2), red deer and elk (Blue Planet). The fauna and flora have adapted to this harsh environment to withstand the winters. The specially adapted needles and thick bark enables the conifers to shed the snow quickly. Whereas the animals migrate, hibernate through winter or burrow for protection in addition to use their fur for camouflage (marietta).



Figure 2: Moose gazing in Alaska (Alaska)



As with every ecosystem the benefit to humans is generally taken for granted since the absence of the ecosystem is hard to be imagined. This is also the case with Boreal forests. It regulates and maintains the global climate by reducing the concentration of greenhouse gases by carbon sequestration and storage by the assimilation in the flora in addition to the cocking up of carbon and the much more harmful gas methane in the permafrost. With the increasing temperatures the permafrost will be reduced releasing the methane and carbon into the atmosphere creating a positive feedback. The forest location – being high up North- allows to stabilise erosion and to prevent snow sliding.

 

Boreal forests are home to many endemic species such as the moose, the lynx and many others. The moose is a source of food for the locals .in addition to this, the area allows the locals to have a source of income by raising animals like sheep that can graze in this biome. Another source of income is timber harvesting (IKEA).

There are also cultural benefits provided by this biome. The area can be used for experimentation since there is not much human interference (Figure 3). Recreational activities such as hiking and snowboarding are very popular. The landscape is also considered a spiritual and symbolic pace where there are vast areas without technical interference.



Figure 3: Aurora Borealis-Alaska (ceativepics)



Once again, nature provides to humans and the valuing of ecosystems is essential to peoples lifestyle and amenities (Schröter et al., 2014).

Temperate Forests - Threats

One of the biggest threats to temperate forests is the human population. Yet, people have been recognising these threats over the years and started to act to conserve these beautiful biomes. A great success story where forests were saved from further destruction was from acid rain. In the 1980s acid rain was considered to be a major problem since pollution from the combustion of fossil fuel (SO_x, NO_x) from one part of the world (Great Britain) could have an effect on another one (Southern Scandinavia). Forests where left naked, with polluted lakes and very little life (Figure 1). Since then, governments and bodies have been trying to reduce the effect by limiting the pollution to different standards set over this time. In 2000 the sulphur emission was reduced from 6 million (1970) to 1 million (YPTE), but further work needs to be done to engage more countries for this cause.

Figure 1: Damage by Acid Rain (YPTE)

With the settlement of people the hunger for development has been a primary cause for the shrinking of these forests. They are ideal for the expansion of population and for agriculture due to the climate and the nutrient rich soil (marietta).

Logging is another threat to this biome due to the slow growing conifers that thrive there in addition to the decreasing populations of species due to fragmentation. The biological hotspot of the temperate forest of Chile is an example whereby fragmentation by logging could decrease biodiversity (Echeverría C. et al., 2007).

Global warming is a threat that will grow bigger if mode drastic measures are taken to decrease the effect. New research suggests that there will be more frequent heat waves in the mid-latitudes (Tang Q. et al., 2013) and with the release of the new IPCC report where the warming since 1950 is extremely likely to be caused by humans and where by it is projected that in some scenarios the increase in global temperature could exceed 2.0°C by the end of the 21st century is alarming. Lindner M. et al (2008) suggest that with the increasing climatic changes the vulnerability of the forests increases as well. Regional decline in productivity is expected for the Mediterranean due to estimated increase in fires and drought. The winter season is the pest control, but with the increasing temperatures the pests are not controlled leading to catastrophic effects for the forests (Figure 2). An example is the Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) found in Europe that is attacked by the Thaumetopoea pityocampa moth (HódarJ. A. et al., 2003).

Figure 2: Reddish and brownish trees in this forest in Montana have been killed by the mountain pine beetle. The beetle population has soared in part because temperatures no longer plunge as low in the winter, so fewer get killed off (nytimes-green).

Invasive species could act as a threat to temperate forests. With the need to decrease the carbon in the atmosphere wrong management could lead to destruction. Inappropriate plantation of trees could result in decreasing biodiversity such as for some cases alien species of eucalyptus and pine (ecomii).

Temperate forests are supporters of human well-being, but humans have been imposing great threat either directly through logging or indirectly through climate change in addition to exacerbating some of the ‘naturel threats’ of pests. In two blog posts time I will be discussing some of the actions taken to limit and control some of these threats to Temperate forests and Boreal forest. Next post Boreal forest and the ecosystem services they provide.

Temperate Forest Ecosystem Services

Temperate forests have been the starting point for many great civilizations in both hemispheres. One of the reasons is the different resources and services these forests could provide. It is sometimes hard to consider these services as they are taken for granted since they have been in our lives forever. With the recent valuation of ecosystems the price tag of the services, gives an indication of the condition and importance these services are to our well-being.

So what do Temperate Forests provide for us?

Hydrological services

Forests act like a filter by purifying the water in addition to reducing the risk of flooding. The forest canopy intercepts the water reaching the ground and some of it, is used up through the root system and transpires. Furthermore, they supply water for domestic and industrial consumption, protect watersheds (Figure 1), provide water for irrigation and hydroelectric power generation (Ninan K.N. & Inoue M.,2013).

Figure 1: Forested watersheds are exceptionally stable hydrological systems (Canada) (FAO)

Soil Protection

Soil erosion is a hazard for many parts of the world. As in the case of rainforests, temperate forests protect the soil by preventing damage of the top soil and nutrient loss, siltation of rivers and dams. In addition to this they help prevent the degradation of land and crop productivity (Ninan K.N. & Inoue M., 2013).

Carbon Sequestration

Similarly to oceans, forests act as major contributors to the sinking of carbon. The assimilation of carbon by the forest and the release of oxygen regulates the atmosphere. Logging activities and burning release the stored carbon back into the atmosphere as the CO₂ greenhouse gas (Ninan K.N. & Inoue M., 2013). Carbon is also locked up in the soil. This carbon is incorporated by the detritus as organic matter through the litter and its decomposition and it is of high importance to the forest productivity (Nave L.E., et al,2010).

Recreation

Temperate forests provide numerous recreational benefits. Due to the different latitudes theses ecosystems are found, the recreational activities vary providing different experiences to the people (Ninan K.N. & Inoue M., 2013). Some of the activities include wildlife viewing, nature walks, tourism, hunting (although I don’t really approve of that) and enjoying the scenery (Pearce D. & Moran D., 1994).

Other services

Historically, temperate forests were a source of timber as fuel wood and building material for houses and furniture (NúñezD., et al., 2006). In addition to this, temperate forests are the home of many endemic species of fauna and flora (Bond, 2010). The pollinators contribute to a high value service in these forests.

These services are only the ones that are most useful to humans and have a big impact on our lives with the absence of temperate forests. Nowadays, it is necessary to put a value on the environment in order to appreciate its existence. I will be discussing this in a later blog post. 

Happy New Year!!

O Christmas Tree! O Christmas Tree!

It is Christmas Eve and most of us have decorated a Christmas tree with lights and colourful knick-knacks. The home decoration with evergreens such as pine, fir and spruce  fount in Temperate and Boreal forests was a habit long before Christianity was introduced. The evergreens were special to people as they remained green all year round and they used to hang boughs over entrances and windows to keep evil spirits away.

In the Northern hemisphere winter solstice (longest night of year) usually occurs on 21^st of December the ancient peoples celebrated the solstice with the evergreens as a reminder that the summer is now coming and green plants will grow. Different cultures celebrated the solstice with evergreens such as the ancient Egyptians worshipping god Ra, the Early Romans the Saturnalia feast, the ancient Celts priests the Durids.

The Christmas tree tradition is credited to the Germans when Christians decorated trees in their houses in the 16^th century.

The popularity of the Christmas tree grew when the popular royals-Queen Victoria and her German Prince were illustrated in the London News around the Christmas tree with their family in 1846.  Since then Christmas trees (Figure 1) became fashionable not only in Europe but also in the American society. It was also noted that the Europeans decorated small trees up to 4ft where as the Americans used to decorate trees from floor to the ceiling (History).

Figure 1: Prince Albert's practice of putting up Christmas trees at Windsor became well known in the 1840s (BBC)

Here is a video of the Christmas tree life in the farm in the U.S. (History).

Happy Holidays !!

Types of Temperate Forests

Since the Temperate Forests cover a vast area at different latitudes, there are different kinds of trees that prevail different areas. In general, the canopy has the characteristic of being moderately dense allowing the light to penetrate giving rise to high understory flora biodiversity and stratifying the animals (UCMP). The main categories are coniferous, mixed broadleaved/ coniferous forests and broadleaved forests. Within these categories there are different types of forest depending on the soil, temperature and rainfall.

For example deciduous forests-the ones that have the more profound changes with seasonality- have broadleaved trees with large, thin leaves allowing maximum absorption of light. In the colder areas winter, they shed their leaves. Deciduous trees include oak, chestnut, maple and elm. Most of the natural forests in the northern hemisphere are now farmland, the ones that have survived are located along the west coast of USA, and Canada (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Deciduous Forest, Katmai National Park and Preserve, Alaska (SkolaiImages)



The great Douglas fir and hemlock are considered to be Temperate Rainforests since they receive> 2000 mm/year of rain. They are located in the British Colombia in Canada, Northwest USA in addition to Chile. These forests are dominated by conifers.

The forests that are close to my heart are the Mediterranean Forests which include pines and small oaks and cork-oak. This type of vegetation can accommodate longer hot summers of southern Europe. They are sometimes pervcieved as not 'true forests'  since they are scrublands that do not grow to thick to become a forest (WWF).

The wildlife in Temperate Forests is adapted against predation and therefore can be hard to see. With the different colours and markings they are camouflaged where as others are nocturnal. Most of the species of animals that we can easily recognize have Temperate Forests as their home. For example the small marsupials, in addition to koalas, kookaburras and many others depend on the Australian forests for survival. In North America these forest host the very familiar to us bears, deer, rabbits in addition to a vast number of other animals and birds. China’s temperate forests protect endangered species such as the giant pandas and my personal favorite red pandas (Figure 2)(GLOBIO)

Figure 2:Endangered Red Panda (NatGeo)

Temperate Forests have helped human populations in many ways but in my opinion they are underestimated due their availability to the developed world. In the following posts I will be discussing the changes Temperate Forest have undergone in addition to the ecosystem services they provide.